General Overview Question:

The purpose of this module is to provide you with information about what it means to say that psychology is a science. When you complete this module, you will be able to answer the following questions.

These terms relate to relationships between some stimulus condition and some behavioral consequence.

LAW - This refers to accurate relationships. It is like a theory that has been repeatedly confirmed. A good example is gravity. When something near the surface of the earth it falls with no exception. Unfortunately, due to the complexity of human behavior, there are not laws in psychology.

Theory: A coherent set of interrelated ideas that helps to make predictions and explain data. An attempt to fit all the currently known facts about a subject into an integrated and logical whole.

Hypothesis: Specific assumptions or predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy. A testable prediction or proposition that attempts to explain some observed phenomenon. When psychologists use the experimental method the formulate some specific theory called an hypothesis. For example, an instructor might have a theory that motivation is the primary predictor of student grades. But it is a theory and has not been proved for the students in question. In order to test this theory (that motivation is the primary predictor of student grades) the instructor would test a specific idea (hypothesis) which might be; if students are given money (motivator) based upon their grade, their grades will improve.

Operational Definition: A term that is very important in the scientific or experimental method is operational definition. It refers to a description that is as precise as possible about the aspects of problem and how it is to be studied in terms of observable events that can be measured. The reason that this term is so important is that most things that psychologists study are rather complex in and of themselves. Learning, motivation, emotion, etc. mean different things to different people and this influences how they might be measured or manipulated. In the example above, motivation can mean different things. A researcher might operationally define motivation, for their experiment, as the score on a specific test or grade in the course. Thus, anyone wishing to test the psychologists conclusions could replicate the experiment and use the same measure of motivation.

To say that something is a law implies an accurate relationship. A law is a theory that has been repeatedly confirmed. A good example is gravity. When something is dropped near the surface of the earth it falls without exception. Unfortunately, due to the complexity of human behavior there are no laws in psychology.

Yes, it is important that you understand what an operational definition is and the difference between a hypothesis, a theory, and a law.

A theory is an attempt to fit all of the currently known facts about a subject into an integrated logical whole. The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

A hypothesis is a testable prediction or proposition that attempts to explain some observed phenomenon. When psychologists use the experimental method, they formulate some specific prediction called a hypothesis which is based on a theory. For example, an instructor might have a theory that motivation is the primary predictor of student grades. But it is a theory and has not been proved for the students in question. In order to test this theory (that motivation is the primary predictor of student grades) the instructor would test a specific idea (hypothesis) which might be; if students are given money (motivator) based upon their grade, their grades will improve.

The reason that this term is so important is that most things that psychologists study are rather complex in and of themselves. Learning, motivation, emotion, etc. mean different things to different people and this influences how they might be measured or manipulated. In the example above, motivation can mean different things. A researcher might operationally define motivation, for their experiment, as the score on a specific test or grade in the course. Thus, anyone wishing to test the psychologists conclusions could replicate the experiment and use the same measure of motivation.

Each of these terms feeds into the other. You must use operational definitions of certain concepts when you experimentally test a hypothesis that is derived from a theory. A theory that is repeatedly confirmed is a law.

As we said before, there are no laws in psychology. There are however, many theories some of which you will learn about later in this course.

Critical Thinking - The first step is to conceptualize the problem and determine what relationships are to be studied.

Literature review - Once you have the general idea, the next step is to go to the library and review the literature. This is done to determine what has been done and what questions remain to be answered on the topic of your interest.

Purpose the Study - At this point you would formulate the specific hypotheses) to be tested. Usually it consisted of taking the next step based on the previous research that you reviewed.

Method (Subjects) - Selection of the subjects to be studies is important as it limits the conclusions you can make. If you collect all data on 20 year old female college students then your findings may tell about them but not about makes, people of different ages, or non-college students.

Method (Procedure) - This will describe in accurate terms what stimulus is presented and what response will be measured. It is described in sufficient detail than anyone could replicate your study.

Collect Data - Data are collected on the subjects using the procedure described above. Once data are collected they are analyzed and presented in the results section of your manuscript.

Conclusions - While presentation of results is very accurate conclusions represent the researchers own ideas and interpretations of the data.

Revise Theory - While the above would end one study, most research leads to other interesting hypotheses that can be tested and also leads to some revision of the overall theory in question.

Replication - Most researchers would not replicate their own research but other will. Someone might have an hypothesis or conclusions that differ from a published study and they would replicate experimenters research.

The scientific method is an approach used to discover accurate information about phenomena, including mind and behavior. We can think of it as a research process with certain steps to follow. Those steps are: conceptualize the problem, collect data, draw conclusions, and revise theory.

The first step is to decide exactly what you want to study in very specific terms. This is the first point at which your operational definitions are going to come into play. The researcher must decide what the operational definition of each concept is for the purpose of the study. Review the components of this step below:

Critical Thinking - The first step is to determine the relationships to be studied and to formulate your operational definitions.

Literature Review - Once you have the general idea, the next step is to go to the library and review the literature. This is done to determine what has been done and what questions remain to be answered on your topic of interest.

Propose the Study - Next, you would formulate the specific hypothesis to be tested. Usually it consists of taking the next step based on the research you reviewed.

Method (Subjects) - The selection of subjects to be studied is important because it determines (usually limits) the conclusions you can make. If you collect all of your data on 20 year old female college students then your findings only tell you about 20 year female college students, NOT about people in general or even college students in general.

Method (Procedure) - This will describe in accurate terms what stimulus is presented and what response will be measured. It is described in laborious detail so that anyone could replicate your study.

Yes, once you have completely conceptualized the problem you are ready to collect data. Data are collected on the subjects using the procedures you defined in the first step. Once data are collected they are analyzed and presented in the results section of your manuscript.

Independent Variable - The manipulated, influential, experimental factor in an experiment. The label INDEPENDENT is used because this variable can be changed independent of other factors to determine its effect on the dependent variable. The independent variable is some stimulus or condition that is manipulated by the experimenter in a predetermined manner. Since it is predetermined it is a variable that is independent of the study itself. Think of it as something that precedes the dependent variable, some stimulus, or some antecedent condition. An experiment might present the independent variable in a number of different amounts. For example, in studying the effects of a drug on mood the drug might be given to different subjects in different amounts.

Dependent Variable - The factor that is measured in an experiment. It can change as the independent variable is manipulated. The label dependent is used because this variable depends on what happens to the participants in the experiment. The dependent variable is what is being studied or measured in an experiment. It is some behavior, response to the independent variable or some consequence of the presentation of the independent variable. In the example above, the dependent variable would be some measure of mood which would be operationally defined in some systematic manner for the purposes of the experiment.

Intervening (uncontrolled) variable - Intervening variables as the name implies are variables that intervene between the independent and dependent variables. There can be many different intervening variables and once discovered may serve as the basis for further research to clarify the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. In the example above, intervening variables might be the weight of the subject, absorptive properties in the digestive system, age, etc.

Experimental group - A group whose experience is manipulated. The experimental group is the group or groups that receive the independent variable. If the independent variable is presented in differing amounts there will be a number of experimental groups. The import thing is to have the composition of the experimental groups match that of the control group. For example, you would want the same percentage of males in each, similar age and education, and any variables that are know to have an effect on the dependent variable. If one of these variables differ between experimental and control groups and has an effect on the dependent variable it becomes an intervening variable.

Control group - A comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor. The control group is the group that is matched to the experimental group(s) but does not receive any independent variable.

Placebo group - A major problem with some psychological and medical research is the Self-fulfilling prophecy. A person receiving a drug may expect to get better and reports improvement which is related more to expectance than to the drug itself. To prevent this from effecting the results of a study medical researchers will have a control group that is a placebo or sugar pill group. It in interesting that this group often shows significant improvement.

Double-blind technique - Another potential intervening variable is the expectance of the experimenter. To control for this in drug research the double-blind technique is used. In this technique neither the subject or the experimenter know whether they are receiving a placebo or active ingredients. This is done by having a pharmacist make up the dosage and mark the container by some code that only he or she knows. The experiment is conducted giving placebo or different amounts of the independent variable to the subjects. After all data is collected the code is broken and the results determined.

In order to understand the experimental method devise a study to explore the effects of alcohol on driving. Be sure to deal with each of the categories listed below.

Animal rights - Animal researchers are guided by very stringent guidelines regarding housing, feeding, and the well-being of their subjects. Organizations have an animal use committed that weighs the benefits of research before they approve it.

Human subject review - Like animal research, the research review committed must approve research. Some of the primary things, in addition to cost benefit, are the topics listed below.

Informed consent - Researchers are required to inform participants as to what will be involved in the experiment and any risks that might be associated with their participation. If the potential participant is unable to give informed consent then their parent or legal guardian must do so. More restrictions apply to those that are unable to give informed consent such as young children, prisoners, and cognitive impaired individuals.

Confidentiality - It is the responsibility of the researcher to keep the information secure and where possible anonymous. In some cases this is done by assigning a code to the subjects data.

Debriefing - If the true intent of the research might bias the results, the experimenter must debrief the subject after the completion of the research.

Deception - If some cases, where informing the subjects will distort the results, deception is involved. In such cases it is essential that the researcher insure that the deception does not harm the subject and the subject must be carefully debriefed after their participation.